1995 to the present Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

1995 to the present - Research Paper Example Violin is not an easy musical instrument to play; much more, artists arguing that they need to find the right violin before they can play are simply acting as prima donnas. Here’s why, according to Flesch (2000), the instrument is a much as influenced by the characteristics of the artist, â€Å"by space, weather, or interested impressions of listeners judging the artists† ( p.5385). Indeed, any of such factors can influence the quality of the music produced by the instrument which disproves the caprice of some artists. So artists who use their instrument as an excuse would surely not earn much respect from real musicians. Another good study that supports my argument that artists must not rely on their instruments is the study made by Inta , Smith and Wolfe in 2005 titled Measurement Of the Effect On Violins Of Ageing and Playing. The study was pursued to test the hypothesis if aging violins do make it sound better. In fact, the study cited that there is even a commercial enterprise that sells aged violins ( Inta, et.al, 2005). This is definitely a hint that much commercialism has penetrated the music industry and clouds the judgment of many music students. The conclusion of the study was revealing stating that there are no statistically significant differences in using violins regardless if they are hundred years old ( p.29). This just shows that violinists are the main factors in producing quality music. One of the basic styles in playing violin includes vibrato. Vibrato means that a high sounding pitch produces different sound which was written about by Samuel Applebaum in his book StringBuilder in 1952. Nevertheless, reading more about techniques used by violinists shows that no style can simply mask a bad note. If violinists are good musicians, then they would hit all their notes well. Moreover, they can make produce different versions

Decentralisation Advantages and Limitations of Decentralization Essay Example for Free

Decentralisation Advantages and Limitations of Decentralization Essay Decentralisation of authority is another concept closely related to centralisation. The delegation of authority by an individual manager is closely related to organization’s Decentralisation of authority. Decentralisation of authority means conscious/systematic effort to bring dispersal (spreading) of decision making power to the lower levels of the Organisation. In decentralisation, only broad powers will be reserved at the top level. Such powers include power to plan, organise, direct and control and maximum powers will delegated to the authority at the lower level. Decentralisation is just opposite to centralisation. Under centralisation, authority is mostly concentrated at the top level management. Centralisation and decentralisation are mutually dependent. In a large Organisation, the process of centralisation and decentralisation co-exist and reinforce each other. Decentralisation is a natural development when the Organisation grows large and complex. Here, centralisation of management is neither possible nor desirable. The only practical solution is to divide the Organisation into decision-making units and giving the powers to take routine types of decisions in regard to the functioning of those units. This is decentralisation in practice. In decentralisation, systematic efforts are being made to delegate to the lowest levels all authority except that which can only be exercised at the central points. Decentralisation is delegation not from one individual to another but delegation to all units in an Organisation. A company is said to be highly decentralized, when the delegation is company-wide in all functions and divisions of the company and also for a wide range of authorities and responsibilities. Decentralisation is different from centralisation as in centralisation, the decision making power is in the hands of one person only. We observe such centralisation in sole trading concerns. It is also noted that centralisation is one feature of traditional management in India while decentralisation is a normal practice under professional management. Definitions of Decentralisation According to Henry Fayol, Everything that goes to increase the importance of the subordinate’s role is decentralisation, everything that goes to reduce it is centralisation. According to Louis Allen, decentralisation refers to the systematic effort to delegate to the lowest levels all authority except that which can only be exercised at central point. This definition makes it clear that even in decentralisation, delegation to the lowest levels is not complete as the basic functions in the management process are centralized. Advantages / Importance of Decentralization 1. Decentralisation helps to improve the quality of decisions/decision-making at the top level management : Decentralisation of authority among other executives at all levels in the Organisation relieves the top executive of the excessive burden saving his valuable time, which he can devote to more important and long-term problems. This is bound to improve the quality of his decisions regarding such problems. 2. Decentralisation facilitates diversification of activities : It is a matter of common experience that an Organisation with departmentation on the basis of products facilitates diversification of products or market even when the authority is centralized. Decentralisation takes this process a step further. Managers of semi-autonomous product divisions are able to utilise their skills and experienced judgment. This has a bearing on their products and the market. The enterprise also attains maximum possible growth. Decentralisation is beneficial when new product lines or new activities are introduced in an Organisation. Such policy creates self sufficient units under overall co-ordination of top level management. 3. Decentralisation encourages development of managerial personnel : Most companies find lack of managerial talent as a limiting factor in their growth. A company cannot expand effectively beyond the scope and abilities of its managerial personnel. Capable managers, however, can be developed only by giving managerial jobs to suitable persons and delegating them the authority to make important decisions. Such wide exposure gives them opportunity to grow and to have self development for higher positions. The more talented and capable persons will learn and improve and qualify themselves for higher managerial positions. Only a decentralized Organisation can offer such opportunities to future managers without involving additional expenditure. A decentralized Organisation also allows its managers adequate freedom to try new ideas, methods or techniques. In brief, decentralisation creates a team of competent managers at the disposal of the company. 4. Decentralisation improves motivation : Research conducted by social scientists has proved that the Organisation structure itself exercises some influence on the motivation of the people working within it. An Organisation structure which facilitates delegation, communication and participation also provides greater motivation to its managers for higher productivity. Decentralized Organisation structure is most favorable for raising the morale and motivation of subordinates which is visible through better work performance. 5. Decentralisation makes decision-making quicker and better : Since decisions do not have to be referred up through the hierarchy, quicker and better decisions at lower levels can be taken. Divisional heads are motivated to make such decisions that will create the maximum profit because they are held responsible for the effect of their decisions on profits. Thus decentralisation facilitates quick and result-oriented decisions by concerned persons. 6. Decentralisation provides opportunity to learn by doing : Decentralisation provides a positive climate where there is freedom to make decisions, freedom to use judgment and freedom to act. It gives practical training to middle level managers and facilitates management development at the enterprise level. Limitations of Decentralization 1. Decentralisation may lead to the problem of co-ordination at the level of an enterprise as the decision-making authority is not concentrated. 2. Decentralisation may lead to inconsistencies (i.e. absence of uniformity) at the Organisation level. For example, uniform policies or procedures may not be followed for the same type of work in different divisions. 3. Decentralisation is costly as it raises administrative expenses on account of requirement of trained personnel to accept authority at lower levels. Even the services of such highly paid manpower may not be utilised fully, particularly in small organisations. 4. Introduction of decentralisation may be difficult or may not be practicable in small concerns where product lines are not broad enough for the creation of autonomous units for administrative purposes. 5. Decentralisation creates special problems particularly when the enterprise is facing number of uncertainties or emergency situations. The decision-making process gets delayed and even correct decisions as per the changing situations may not be possible. Decentralization Is Not An Unmixed Blessing The advantages of decentralisation are more significant as compared to its limitations. The limitations suggest possible problems relating to decentralisation. Efforts should be made to solve these problems. It is certainly not desirable to have centralisation (in place of decentralisation) only because of certain limitations. However, to what extent the organisation should be decentralized is a delicate issue. Here, certain factors such as size of the organisation and the abilities of lower level managers need careful consideration.

Maggots have a standard development

Maggots have a standard development 1. Introduction 1.1 Anatomy of Maggots Maggots breathe from the anterior end of their body to get oxygen as they burrow through tissue. They bury with the help of two sharp digging hooks. Maggots have a standard development i.e. egg-larva-pupae. The developmental stage can be determined by the length of the maggots. Maggots grow at an increased rate with higher temperature.(Giangiuliani et al. 1994) Maggots are short in proportion to its thickness and its smaller at the two ends than in the middle. There is line of dots on the body of maggots; these are the mouths of air canals which serve as a lung. They have smooth skin and are commonly of light cream colour.(Schoofs et al. 2009) Some of them have tails for the motion in the water. The movement of maggots with feet is a mixture of crawling and walking. The crawling motion is an alternate elongation and contraction of one half of the length of the body. First, the front half lengthen and stretch forward while the following half is contracted and vice versa. The walking is performed by a successive motion of each pair of feet that support these alternate contractions and elongations of a body making head and tail alternately fixed.(Schoofs et al. 2009) 1.2. Life Cycle 1.2.1. House fly (Musca demostica) life cycle Female flies can place around 500 white eggs in numerous of groups of around 75 to 150. The lengths of these eggs are approximately 1.2 mm. It takes about 24 hours for the eggs to be hatched by larvae known as squats (Singh and Vardanis 1984). The main source of food for consumption of maggots is generally dead organic material like decomposing garbage or faeces. These legless creatures are pale in colour and grow 3-9 mm in length. Larvae stage lasts no less than a week before they crawl to a dry cool place due to their transformation into reddish brown pupae which reach up to 8 mm in length. The mature flies then come out of the pupae. This whole biological process of physical development after the larvaes birth is called ‘complete metamorphoses. The life of adult flies is between 2-4 weeks or even longer under controlled laboratory conditions. The growths of flies come to an end after coming out of the pupae. The small size of some flies does not indicate their growing stage, because at this point flies do not grow up any more, but of course it is the result of inadequate consumption and lack of food during the larval phase. (Bennet S.M. 2008) Some female flies become ready to mate after 36 hours of emerging from the pupae. She is then mounted and inject with sperm by a male from behind. The duration of mating lasts from few seconds to few minutes and the female stores the sperm to frequently produce eggs. The males job is to protect a certain territory to make sure no other flies or insects tress pass the area and also to try and mount the female trespassers. (Bennet S.M. 2008) Just like other insects flies too depend on the warm temperature. The warmer the environment, the more active and faster they are in their development and vice versa. (Bennet 2008) 1.2.2. Bluebottle flies (Calliphora vomitoria) life cycle Bluebottle flies are a little longer than normal house flies, around 10-14 mm in length. They are blue colour as the name suggests, with dull gray head and thorax, red eyes, black legs and antenna, clear wings and a body covered with bristle.(Wooldridge et al. 2007) The eggs of blue bottle fly is placed by a female usually as the same place as her consumption area which could be either rotting meat, garbage, and, or faeces. Just like the house fly larvae (maggot), the larvae of blue bottle fly known as Calliphora larvae is also pale-whitish. As soon as these maggots emerge from their eggs, they begin to consume on the surrounding dead or decaying organic material. After few days of consuming, the larvae are fully grown and ready to wrap themselves into thick brown cocoons in a dry cool area where they can stay in for two weeks before emerging from it as an adult fly. Similar to housefly and other insects, the adult blue bottle flies and pupae hibernate during winter, and waken up by warmer temperature when they can be active again in mating, laying eggs. These flies get involved in the activities such as pollinating of some flowers. (Kurashi 2008) 1.2.3. Green bottle (L. Sericata) life cycle The female fly lays a bunch of eggs in an injured area, a corpse (dead body), or in necrotic (dead tissue) or decomposing tissue. The larvae of green bottle known as pinkie hatch from their eggs 8-10 hours after being placed in a warm damp area; however this process could be delayed to three days in a cooler weather condition. The female fly can lay 130 to 172 eggs. The larvae are again pale-whitish. They are 10-14 mm in length. The larva consumes on the dead or decomposing tissue approximately for 3-10 days. This would change as the temperature increases or decreases. During this length of time, the larva goes through 3 larval stages. In the cool temperature of 16oC the first level of larva phase lasts about 53 hours, the second phase, 42 hours, and finally the third and the last phase will take 98 hours to fulfil this part of their life cycle. If the temperature increased to 27oC, the 1st stage would take 31 hours whilst the second stage lasts 12 hours and the 3rd stage will last 4 0 hours to achieve this particular life cycle. In the 3rd larva stage, the larva will move onto soil to pupate for 6 to 14 days. This will again change if the temperature is lower, and if it is in winter time, they can stay in the soil until the temperature of the soil increases again. Following the transformation of the pupa, the adult fly comes out from the soil and feeds on dead and decomposing tissue. It will take the mature flies two weeks until they begin to lay eggs. The whole duration of the life cycle of the blue bottle fly is between two to three weeks; however this could be reduced during summer time when the temperature is higher which will consequently lead to the more activity of the fly is at its most. There are normally 3 to 4 generations of L. sericata during each year. (Merih 2008) 1.3 Human Infection and Medical Importance Flies are commonly developed in unsanitary areas and manures in farms. The most common type of fly found around these areas is the house flies, also known as Musca domestica, scientifically. The major concerns with these flies are that it does not produce damage directly. They transmit pathogens (viruses, fungi, bacteria, protozoa and nematodes). (Fotedar et al. 1992) The pathogenic organisms are transferred by flies from sewages, unclean areas and wastes onto their mouthparts, via their feces and vomitus and then to human or food. One of the specific problems is the movement of flies from the animal feces to the food soon to be consumed by the human. Moreover, flies can contain the pathogens consumed from unclean or microbe infested area in its mouthparts or alimentary canal for several days, which are transmitted through regurgitation or defecation (Fotedar et al. 1992). Critical health problems can arise if there are food stalls, hospitals or meat market nearby in areas where proper plumbing is necessary such as open latrines or an open drainage. 1.3. 1. A few common diseases caused by flies Two methods of pathogenic transmission by flies are mechanical and biological transmission. 1.4. Maggots Maggots are usually found in decaying bodies. They give an indication of time elapsed since the death and the place of the death, by identifying the stage of their lifecycle and species. Their DNA is used to identify their species. The size of house fly larvae is 10 20 mm. Histeridae (another insect family) feed on larvae. Thus, the lack of maggots would increase the estimated time of death. A few other species of larvae are bred specifically for angling or as the food for pets such as reptiles or birds. They are used in the production of some cheeses (casu marzu). Necrotic wounds can also be cleaned out with the help of maggots. Maggot debridement therapy is the use of disinfected and live fly larvae to promote the healing of wound by necrotic tissue cleaning. The maggot is introduced to the non healing tissue debridement of an animal or a human. (Jones and Wall 2008) Dressing containing maggots are used to seal the non healing wound of the patient. The dressing is air permeable for the maggots to live. They are unable to reproduce in the dressing when they are satiated as they are immature. The length of the therapy depends on the severity of the debridement. 1.4.1. The mechanism of action The maggots are used in the medical field for the three main reasons: Debridement The wound containing the necrotic tissues is the ideal breeding area for bacteria leading to septicaemia, amputation and gangrene. The healing of the wound is stopped if the necrotic tissues have not been cleaned out. The surgeons can only debride the tissues they can see. This often results in the removal of healthy tissues along with the dead tissues causing pain in patient. If a tissue containing dead cells is not removed, bacteria may cause infection to the nearby healthy tissues, spreading it further. Therefore the maggots are used in specific areas where the surgeon is unable to remove the necrotic tissues. The healthy tissues are not damaged by the maggots. They consume with precise boundary. Maggots obtain nutrients by extracorporeal digestion. Proteolytic enzymes are used to liquefy dead tissue, which are later absorbed. (Jones and Wall 2008) Disinfection The wounds are harder to treat if they contain antibiotic resistant microbial strain. Although maggots are used to clean out the necrotic wounds, it contained secretion which could disinfect a bacterial infection. The infections can be life threatening. The secretion contained allantoin, phenylacetic acid, urea and calcium carbonate and proteolytic enzymes. The microbes that are resistant to these secretions are lysed and ingested within the maggots. A few of the pathogenic bacteria that are destroyed and inhibited by the maggots are MRSA, Gram-positive strains and group A and B streptococci. (van der Plas et al. 2007) Wound healing Epidermal growth factor and IL-6 are amplified by the maggot secretion. The growth of the fibroblasts and chondrocytes are also stimulated by the secretions. Moreover, wound exodus and formation of granulation tissue are also stimulated. (Li et al. 2009) 1.4.2. Limitations Only moist wounds are suited to maggot therapy. Adequate oxygen supply is also necessary. Although dry wounds can be moistened with saline soaks, it does not provide a good feeding environment for the maggots. Maggots often have a short life span which restricts its long-term use. Patients may also find them distasteful or disgusting. Therefore polymer bags are used to hide them from others site. (Li et al. 2009) The three types of flies that are studied in our project are: 1.5. House fly The most common type of flies found in most homes is the houseflies also known as Musca domestica. These flies are considered a pest as it carries the common diseases. Houseflies feed onsputum, feces, and humid decaying organic materials.They can only take in foods in liquid form. Therefore, they use their saliva to predigest the solid food which is later sucked in. House flies also regurgitate certain digested food and take it again to its abdomen. Mechanical transmission of organisms on flies: â€Å"Parasitic diseases: Cysts ofprotozoae.g.Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lambliaand eggs of helminths e.g.:Ascaris lumbricoides,Trichuros trichura,Haemenolypes nana,Enterobius vermicularis†. (Fà ·rster et al. 2009) Viruses:Enteroviruses:Poliomyelitis,infective hepatitis(A E). etc â€Å"Bacterial diseases: Typhoid, cholera, dysentery, pyogenic cocci, etc. House flies have been confirmed to be carriers ofCampylobacter andE. coliO157:H7 using Polymerase Chain Reactionâ€Å". (Ahmad et al. 2007) Polymerase chain reaction can also be used to identify the pathogenic bacteria contained in the house fly. (Ahmad et al. 2007) 1.6. Greenbottle fly The greenbottle fly comes from the species ofblowfly, in the generaLuciliaandPhaenicia. The common species ofgreenbottle areLucilia cuprina,Lucilia caesar,Lucilia coeruleiviridis, andLucilia illustris.The maggots of the greenbottle fly feed only on dead tissues and not the living cells. Therefore the larvae of greenbottle fly are used in maggot therapy. (Graczyk et al. 2001) 1.7. Bluebottle fly The bluebottle fly is another type of blow fly known as Calliphora vomitoria. They are half an inch larger than the house flies. The rotting materials attract the adult bluebottle flies. These flies play an important role in ecological system as they feed on dead or dying materials. It is usually the female flies that enter indoors. (Stevens 2003) 1.8. The microbiology of maggots used in angling 1.8.1. Pinkies As its name suggest this maggot is pink in colour. Pinkies are the larvae of the green bottle fly, close to its relative the blue bottle and are about two thirds the size. They are usually about 15 mm long and have the same feed sack as maggots. Like maggots pinkies come in different colours amongst which the red maggot and the natural white are the most common but with one major exception, the fluorescent pinkie, a pink/red colour and usually devastating particularly in the winter. Fluorescent pinkies are very good in cold weather. Pinkies are good as hookbait for small fish at all times. However,being smaller than large whites they are less likely to over ­feed the fish. Also being lively, pinkies tend to burrow out of sight into the bottom when fed into the swim. Pinkies are small, light maggots best suited to canals, still waters and slow-moving rivers as they tend to fall slowly in the water and fast flowing water will wash them away. (Adams and Hall 2003) Storage This is totally dependent on the age of the maggot. Maggots can be stored for 10-15 days provided they are kept cool, as cool environment slows down the natural ageing and development of the maggot in to its chrysalis state. Pinkies are sold in either saw dust or maize to keep them clean and in the best state possible. To keep maggots for any length of time it is advisable to change the sawdust or maize regularly. Pinkies kept for ages in the fridge can be going strong after 2 or even 3 weeks. (Adams and Hall 2003) Hooking The pinkie should be hooked in the same way that you would hook the white maggot, through the bearded end. As the Pinkie is small in size it stands to reason that the hooks need to be smaller too. Again when hooking the pinkie the maggot should remain lively and no fluid should be released. (Adams and Hall 2003) 1.8.2. Squatts The squat or feeder as it is commonly known is the smallest of the maggot family and are the larvae of the housefly. The mature larva is usually 3 to 9 mm in length, creamy whitish in colour, cylindrical but has a tapering head. The head consists a pair of dark hooks. These legless maggots emerge from the eggs during summers within 8 to 20 hours, and they immediately feed on the wastes the eggs were laid on. The fully grown maggots are 12mm long n are greasy on surface. The fully grown maggots move up to the cold dry place for their transformation into pupal phase. (Hou et al. 2007) They are usually used as loose feed and like the Pinkie are more suitable to still or slow moving water as they sink very slowly. The squat is rarely used as hook bait but can be if needed. The squat is a slow moving sluggish maggot that displays little activity when it is on the bed of the water. For this reason they are an excellent fish holding bait and are a good choice when used with ground bait. (Hou et al. 2007) Storage Squats are usually sold in damp sand which helps to stop the maggot from drying out. Unfortunately the squat will not keep for more than a few days so it1s a good idea not to buy too many at any one time. (Hou et al. 2007) Hooking These are not usually used as hook baits but it stands to reason that due their size they will need a small hook to hook them effectively. The squat when hooked should be hooked in the same way that you would hook the white maggot, through the bearded end. 1.8.3. Calliphora larvae The white maggot is the larvae of the common Blue Bottle and is the largest of the maggot family. As soon as, the larvae emerge from their eggs, they begin to consume on the surrounding dead or decomposing organic material. Once they are fully grown within a period of a week, they leave the carrion. (Stevens 2003) Most insect larvae have organs called stemmata which contain the photoreceptors, however, these appear to be absent in maggots. There are a number of structures at the front end of a maggot that have at one time or another been suggested to be the site of photoreception. These include chemoreceptors and even the imaginal discs that are destined to become the compound eyes of the adult fly. (Stevens 2003) Good quality maggots will be lively and soft to the touch. They will have a black spot under the skin which is an indication of having recently fed (the larger the spot the younger the maggot). Maggots that are slow moving or firm to the touch are older and will therefore turn in to casters much sooner. (Stevens 2003) Storage This is totally dependent on the age of the maggot. Keeping the maggot cool slows down the natural ageing and development of the maggot in to its chrysalis state and can therefore be kept for 10-15 days. When kept in warm conditions they last not more than 2 days. Maggots that have been left in warm conditions become sweaty and will eventually die. Sweaty maggots stink due to which they will not be attractive to fishes. (Stevens 2003) Hooking As a general rule of thumb, small hooks should be used when hooking maggots. When the point of the hook is pressed across the beard of the maggot, the maggot should remain lively avoiding the release of fluids. 1.8. Campylobacter Species The genus Campylobacter is a gram negative; microearophilic curve shaped rods that can cause certain diseases such as Campylobacteriosis in both human and particular animals via infection and contamination from the genus itself. Most common species in human pathogens are Campylobacter jejuni and C. Coli and the least common ones are C. Lari, C. Hyointestinals, and C. Fetus. A very high amount of Campylobacter bacteria is detectable in the faeces of individual suffering from acute campylobacteriosis due to developing gastroenteritis. At this stage the Campylobacter could easily be detected and separated from the faeces sample using selective agar plates, however at the later stage is more difficult to detect the bacteria in that way as the number of bacteria decreases in the samples due to the increase of the number of dead or injured cells interfering with microbial flora (Figure 15). This bacteria cause food born infections from mild to severe diarrhoea. This is a big concern in angling industry as the fishermen who eat food after handling the contaminated larva without washing their hands. Therefore they develop illnesses such as food poisoning and diarrheal illnesses. 1.9. References Adams,Z.J.O. and Hall,M.J.R. (2003) Methods used for the killing and preservation of blowfly larvae, and their effect on post-mortem larval length. Forensic Science International 138, 50-61. Ahmad,A., Nagaraja,T.G. and Zurek,L. (2007) Transmission of Escherichia coli O157:H7 to cattle by house flies. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 80, 74-81. Bennet S.M. (2008) Musca domestica. Bennet, S. M. (2008) Musca domestica. Cohen,D., Green,M., Block,C., Slepon,R., Ambar,R., Wasserman,S.S. and Levine,M.M. (1991) Reduction of transmission of shigellosis by control of houseflies (Musca domestica). The Lancet 337, 993-997. Fotedar,R., Banerjee,U., Singh,S., Shriniwas and Verma,A.K. (1992) The housefly (Musca domestica) as a carrier of pathogenic microorganisms in a hospital environment. Journal of Hospital Infection 20, 209-215. Fà ·rster,M., Klimpel,S. and Sievert,K. (2009) The house fly (Musca domestica) as a potential vector of metazoan parasites caught in a pig-pen in Germany. Veterinary Parasitology 160, 163-167. Giangiuliani,G., Lucchi,A., Vinson,S.B. and Bin,F. (1994) External anatomy of adult antennal sensilla of the fly, Trichopoda pennipes F. (Diptera: Tachinidae). International Journal of Insect Morphology and Embryology 23, 105-113. Graczyk,T.K., Knight,R., Gilman,R.H. and Cranfield,M.R. (2001) The role of non-biting flies in the epidemiology of human infectious diseases. Microbes and Infection 3, 231-235. Gr ³bel,P. and Cave,D.R. (2004) Sanitation and houseflies (Musca domestica): Factors for the transmission of Helicobacter pylori. Bulletin de lInstitut Pasteur 96, 83-91. Hou,L., Shi,Y., Zhai,P. and Le,G. (2007) Antibacterial activity and in vitro anti-tumor activity of the extract of the larvae of the housefly (Musca domestica). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 111, 227-231. Jones,G. and Wall,R. (2008) Maggot-therapy in veterinary medicine. Research in Veterinary Science 85, 394-398. Kurashi, H. (2008) 109. Family CALLIPHORIDE. Li,Q., Lu,R., Huo,R. and Fu,H. (2009) Maggots of musca domestica in treatment of acute intractable wound. Surgery 145, 122-123. Merih,C. (2008) Neonatal myiasis: a case report. Turkish Journal of Pediatrics 581-584. Schoofs,A., Niederegger,S. and Spie ¯,R. (2009) From behavior to fictive feeding: Anatomy, innervation and activation pattern of pharyngeal muscles of Calliphora vicina 3rd instar larvae. Journal of Insect Physiology 55, 218-230. Singh,G.J.P. and Vardanis,A. (1984) Chitinases in the house fly, Musca domestica: Pattern of activity in the life cycle and preliminary characterization. Insect Biochemistry 14, 215-218. Stevens,J.R. (2003) The evolution of myiasis in blowflies (Calliphoridae). International Journal for Parasitology 33, 1105-1113. van der Plas,M.J.A., van der Does,A.M., Baldry,M., Dogterom-Ballering,H.C.M., van Gulpen,C., van Dissel,J.T., Nibbering,P.H. and Jukema,G.N. (2007) Maggot excretions/secretions inhibit multiple neutrophil pro-inflammatory responses. Microbes and Infection 9, 507-514. Wooldridge,J., Scrase,L. and Wall,R. (2007) Flight activity of the blowflies, Calliphora vomitoria and Lucilia sericata, in the dark. Forensic Science International 172, 94-97.

Dreams :: essays research papers

Dreams: Could They Be All They Are Made Out To Be?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚ ³Over a seventy-year life span, you ¹ll devote at least fifty thousand hours to dreaming ² (Segell 42). These dreams can be made up of many things. They can be a window into another world or  ³like a urgent fax from your subconscious ² (Graves 97). Many things can affect what we dream about and they are not always our previous thoughts. Things such as gender, information gained during the course of time, or even sensations received while asleep all contribute to the content of dreams. Many times they contribute more than most people think.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gender affects many things, including the way we dream.  ³Men typically dream about fighting, protecting, or competing in an outside environment; women are more likely to dream about relationships and loss in an inside environment ² (Segell 42). Most men have been brought up with the notion that they must have more of a tendency of being aggressive. In this aggression they either dream about how aggressive they are or about the lack of aggression in their daily routine. Women, on the other hand, have typically been brought up to be more emotional than men. This up bringing has also affected the way women dream.  ³Women are more likely to dial into their interior life whether awake or asleep ² (Segell 42). This means that women will read into their dreams more frequently then men. Researchers have found that problems that occur during the day either at work or home and are worked through in your sleep (Segell 42). While men would most likely look at these d reams as nothing but a dream, women will try to face these problems throughout the day. Although there are many differences there are also similarities between men and women in dreams.  ³Like women, you have slightly more negative than positive dreams ² (Segell 42). Which in this case would show one of those similarities. Other similarities would include sex dreams and the ongoing infatuation about their body and physical appearances. This also shows that although men and women are very different their mind works very similarly. This could be from being brought up or society constantly showing no hope in the life we live.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the course of the night your mind will keep working or trying to figure out problems that crossed your path over time.  ³Dreams perform emotional homework that helps us master life ¹s lessons ² (Graves 190).

How ROTC Builds Character and Leadership

Enrolling into Junior ROTC most don't really know what to expect, all they moss likely think is that it â€Å"will make them more popular to wear a uniform†. It does NT take very long to realize that the program is so much more than just uniforms. OR ETC provides cadets with life changing skills that strengthen character and leaders hip, and allows them to expand and find who they are. The ROTC program teaches cadets the importance of respect, obedience, trust t, and other traits needed to live and give out positive benefits in the world.Thro cough seasons of self discovery, the want to change one's flaws and keep successful ha bits becomes a main goal to reach. Becoming higher in rank motivates cadets to b behave in ways that show others what it means to be a ROTC cadet, and encourage 20th errs to reach beyond â€Å"just satisfaction†. The most important character trait in ROTC would most definitely have to be leadership. Through principles of loyalty, duty, and respec t cadets learn and demonstrate the ability to take charge and encourage others to do their great est..In order to have a position of leadership, an individual has to have a high level of attendance and cooperation, so that they can assist others in achieving goals. Some have trouble seeing the difference between leading and controlling, and what will benefit t he group rather than themselves. The individuals with the high level of patience, cope ration and teamwork skills are the best leaders, who bring success and respect upon the messes from others. Today's constant change in society, shows that ROTC gives positive contributions for young people to carry on. Junior ROTC takes in young cadets , and releases them as better citizens.Those individuals in the future will be import ant for the world to continue the values of character and leadership. Was one who thought I'd become more popular with given a uniform. I found out that the uniforms teach you to have confidence in yourself, to show how moot voted and dedicated you are in becoming a better citizen, and to show that being popular r isn't as important as it may seem. If it wasn't for my Junior ROTC family I'd still be the shy, no confidence, constant trouble maker I once was. We stick together in everything g, and try our best to spread our positive behavior beyond the classroom.

The Relationship Between Life Expectancy at Birth and Gdp Per Capita

The relationship between Life Expectancy at birth and GDP per capita (PPP) Candidate: Teacher: Candidate number: Date of submission: Word Count: 2907 Section 1: Introduction In a given country, Life Expectancy at birth is the expected number of years of life from birth. Gross domestic product per capita is defined as the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in one year, divided by the size of the population of that country. The main objective of the present project is to establish the existence of a statistical relation between Life Expectancy (y) at birth and GDP per capita (x).First, we will present in Section 2 the data, from an official governmental source, containing Life Expectancy at birth and GDP per capita of 48 countries in the year 2003. We will put this data in a table ordered alphabetically and at the end of the section we will perform some basic statistical analysis of these data. These statistics will include the mean, median, modal cl ass and standard deviation, for both Life Expectancy and GDP per capita. In Section 3 we will find the regression line which best fits our data and the corresponding correlation coefficient r.It is natural to ask if there is a non-linear model, which better describes the statistical relation between GDP per capita and Life Expectancy. This question will be studied in Section 4, where we will see if a logarithmic relation of type y=A ln(x+C) + B, is a better model. In Section 5 we will perform a chi square test to get evidence of the existence of a statistical relation between the variables x and y. In the last section of the project, other than summarizing the obtained results, we will present several possible directions to further investigation. Section 2: Data collectionThe following table shows the GDP per capita (PPP) (in US Dollars), denoted xi, and the mean Life Expectancy at birth (in years), denote yi, in 48 countries in the year 2003. The data has been collected through an online website (2). According to this website it represents official world records. Country| GDP – per capita (xi)| Life Expectancy at birth (yi)| 1. Argentina| 11200| 75. 48| 2. Australia| 29000| 80. 13| 3. Austria| 30000| 78,17| 4. Bahamas, The| 16700| 65,71| 5. Bangladesh| 1900| 61,33| 6. Belgium| 29100| 78,29| 7. Brazil| 7600| 71,13| 8. Bulgaria| 7600| 71,08| 9. Burundi| 600| 43,02| 10. Canada| 29800| 79,83| 1. Central African Republic| 1100| 41,71| 12. Chile| 9900| 76,35| 13. China| 5000| 72,22| 14. Colombia| 6300| 71,14| 15. Congo, Republic of the| 700| 50,02| 16. Costa Rica| 9100| 76,43| 17. Croatia| 10600| 74,37| 18. Cuba| 2900| 76,08| 19. Czech Republic| 15700| 75,18| 20. Denmark| 31100| 77,01| 21. Dominican Republic| 6000| 67,96| 22. Ecuador| 3300| 71,89| 23. Egypt| 4000| 70,41| 24. El Salvador| 4800| 70,62| 25. Estonia| 12300| 70,31| 26. Finland| 27400| 77,92| 27. France| 27600| 79,28| 28. Georgia| 2500| 64,76| 29. Germany| 27600| 78,42| 30. Ghana| 2200| 56,53| 31. Greece| 20000| 78,89| 32. Guatemala| 4100| 65,23| 33.Guinea| 2100| 49,54| 34. Haiti| 1600| 51,61| 35. Hong Kong| 28800| 79,93| 36. Hungary| 13900| 72,17| 37. India| 2900| 63,62| 38. Indonesia| 3200| 68,94| 39. Iraq| 1500| 67,81| 40. Israel| 19800| 79,02| 41. Italy| 26700| 79,04| 42. Jamaica| 3900| 75,85| 43. Japan| 28200| 80,93| 44. Jordan| 4300| 77,88| 45. South Africa| 10700| 46,56| 46. Turkey| 6700| 71,08| 47. United Kingdom| 27700| 78,16| 48. United States| 37800| 77,14| Table1: GDP per capita and Life Expectancy at birth in 48 countries in 2003 (source: reference [2]) Statistical analysis: First we compute some basic statistics of the data collected in the above table.Basic statistics for the GDP per capita: Mean: x=i=148xi48 = 12900 In order to compute the median, we need to order the GDP values: 600, 700, 1100, 1500, 1600, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2500, 2900, 2900, 3200, 3300, 3900, 4000, 4100, 4300, 4800, 5000, 6000, 6300, 6700, 7600, 7600, 9100, 9900, 10600, 10700, 11200, 12300, 13900, 15700, 16700, 19800, 20000, 26700, 27400, 27600, 27600, 27700, 28200, 28800, 29000, 29100, 29800, 30000, 31100, 37800. The median is obtained as the middle value of the two central values (the 25th and the 26th): Median= 7600+91002 = 8350 In order to compute the modal class, we need to split the data in classes.If we consider classes of USD 1000 (0-999, 1000-1999, †¦) we have the following table of frequencies: Class| Frequency| 0-999| 2| 1000-1999| 4| 2000-2999| 5| 3000-3999| 3| 4000-4999| 4| 5000-5999| 1| 6000-6999| 3| 7000-7999| 2| 8000-8999| 0| 9000-10000| 2| 10000-10999| 2| 11000-11999| 1| 12000-12999| 1| 13000-13999| 1| 14000-14999| 0| 15000-15999| 1| 16000-16999| 1| 17000-17999| 0| 18000-18999| 0| 19000-19999| 1| 20000-20999| 1| 21000-21999| 0| 22000-22999| 0| 23000-23999| 0| 24000-24999| 0| 25000-25999| 0| 26000-26999| 1| 27000-27999| 4| 28000-28999| 2| 29000-29999| 3| 30000-30999| 1| 31000-31999| 1| 32000-32999| 0| 3000-33999| 0| 34000-34999| 0| 35000-35999| 0| 36000-36999| 0| 37000-38000| 1| Table 2: Frequencies of GDP per capita with classes of USD 1000 With this choice of classes, the modal class is 2000-2999 (with a frequency of 5). If instead we consider classes of USD 5000 (0-4999, 5000-9999, †¦) the modal class is the first: 0-4999 (with a frequency of 18). Class| Frequency| 0-4999| 18| 5000-9999| 8| 10000-14999| 5| 15000-19999| 3| 20000-24999| 1| 25000-29999| 10| 30000-34999| 2| 35000-40000| 1| Table 3: Frequencies of GDP per capita with classes of USD 5000 Standard deviation: Sx=i=148(xi-x)248 =11100Basic statistics for the Life Expectancy: Mean: y=i=148yi48 = 70,13 As before, in order to compute the median, we need to order the Life Expectancies: 41. 71, 43. 02, 46. 56, 49. 54, 50. 02, 51. 61, 56. 53, 61. 33, 63. 62, 64. 76, 65. 23, 65. 71, 67. 81, 67. 96, 68. 94, 70. 31, 70. 41, 70. 62, 71. 08, 71. 08, 71. 13, 71. 14, 71. 89, 72. 17, 72. 22, 74. 37, 75. 18, 75. 48, 75. 85, 76. 08, 76. 35, 76. 43, 77. 01, 77. 14, 77. 88, 77. 92, 78. 16, 78. 17, 78. 29, 78. 42, 78. 89, 79. 02, 79. 04, 79. 28, 79. 83, 79. 93, 80. 13, 80. 93. The median is obtained as the middle value of the two central values:Median= 72,17+72,222 = 72. 195 To find the modal class of Life Expectancy we consider modal classes of one year. The table of frequencies is the following Class| Frequency | 41| 1| 42| 0| 43| 1| 44| 0| 45| 0| 46| 1| 47| 0| 48| 0| 49| 1| 50| 1| 51| 1| 52| 0| 53| 0| 54| 0| 55| 0| 56| 1| 57| 0| 58| 0| 59| 0| 60| 0| 61| 1| 62| 0| 63| 1| 64| 1| 65| 2| 66| 0| 67| 2| 68| 1| 69| 0| 70| 3| 71| 5| 72| 2| 73| 0| 74| 1| 75| 3| 76| 3| 77| 4| 78| 5| 79| 5| 80| 2| Table 4: Frequencies of Life Expectancy at birth with classes of 1 year It appears from the table above that there are three modal classes: 71, 78 and 79 (with a frequency of 5).Standard deviation: Sy=i=148(yi-y)248 =10. 31 The standard deviations Sx and Sy have been found using the following table of data: Country| GDP| Life exp. | (x – x? ) | (x – x? )2| (y – ? y)| (y – y? )2| (x – x ? )(y – y ? )| Argentina| 11200| 75. 48| -1665| 2770838| 5. 35| 28. 64| -8907. 60| Australia| 29000| 80. 13| 16135| 260351671| 10. 00| 100. 03| 161374. 34| Austria| 30000| 78. 17| 17135| 293622504| 8. 04| 64. 66| 137790. 17| Bahamas. The| 16700| 65. 71| 3835| 14710421| -4. 42| 19. 53| -16947. 75| Bangladesh| 1900| 61. 33| -10965| 120222088| -8. 80| 77. 42| 96474. 63| Belgium| 29100| 78. 29| 16235| 263588754| 8. 16| 66. 1| 132501. 29| Brazil| 7600| 71. 13| -5265| 27715838| 1. 00| 1. 00| -5271. 16| Bulgaria| 7600| 71. 08| -5265| 27715838| 0. 95| 0. 90| -5007. 93| Burundi| 600| 43. 02| -12265| 150420004| -27. 11| 734. 88| 332477. 52| Canada| 29800| 79. 83| 16935| 286808338| 9. 70| 94. 11| 164294. 71| Central African Republic| 1100| 41. 71| -11765| 138405421| -28. 42| 807. 63| 334334. 75| Chile| 9900| 76. 35| -2965| 8788754| 6. 22| 38. 70| -18443. 41| China| 5000| 72. 22| -7865| 61851671| 2. 09| 4. 37| -16446. 81| Colombia| 6300| 71. 14| -6565| 43093754| 1. 01| 1. 02| -6638. 43| Congo. Republic of the| 700| 50. 02| -12165| 147977088| -20. 1| 404. 36| 244614. 57| Costa Rica| 9100| 76. 43| -3765| 14172088| 6. 30| 39. 71| -23721. 58| Croatia| 10600| 74. 37| -2265| 5128338| 4. 24| 17. 99| -9604. 66| Cuba| 2900| 76. 08| -9965| 99292921| 5. 95| 35. 42| -59301. 73| Czech Republic| 15700| 75. 18| 2835| 8039588| 5. 05| 25. 52| 14322. 40| Denmark| 31100| 77. 01| 18235| 332530421| 6. 88| 47. 35| 125482. 46| Dominican Republic| 6000| 67. 96| -6865| 47122504| -2. 17| 4. 70| 14887. 57| Ecuador| 3300| 71. 89| -9565| 91481254| 1. 76| 3. 10| -16845. 62| Egypt| 4000| 70. 41| -8865| 78580838| 0. 28| 0. 08| -2493. 16| El Salvador| 4800| 70. 62| -8065| 65037504| 0. 9| 0. 24| -3961. 73| Estonia| 12300| 70. 31| -565| 318754| 0. 18| 0. 03| -102. 33| Finland| 27400| 77. 92| 14535| 211278338| 7. 79| 60. 70| 113249. 07| France| 27600| 79. 28| 14735| 217132504| 9. 15| 83. 75| 134847. 48| Georgia| 2500| 64. 76| -10365| 107424588| -5. 3 7| 28. 82| 55644. 86| Germany| 27600| 78. 42| 14735| 217132504| 8. 29| 68. 74| 122175. 02| Ghana| 2200| 56. 53| -10665| 113733338| -13. 60| 184. 93| 145025. 00| Greece| 20000| 78. 89| 7135| 50914171| 8. 76| 76. 76| 62515. 17| Guatemala| 4100| 65. 23| -8765| 76817921| -4. 90| 24. 00| 42935. 50| Guinea| 2100| 49. 54| -10765| 115876254| -20. 59| 423. 0| 221629. 32| Haiti| 1600| 51. 61| -11265| 126890838| -18. 52| 342. 94| 208606. 00| Hong Kong| 28800| 79. 93| 15935| 253937504| 9. 80| 96. 06| 156187. 00| Hungary| 13900| 72. 17| 1035| 1072088| 2. 04| 4. 17| 2113. 54| India| 2900| 63. 62| -9965| 99292921| -6. 51| 42. 36| 64856. 98| Indonesia| 3200| 68. 94| -9665| 93404171| -1. 19| 1. 41| 11488. 77| Iraq| 1500| 67. 81| -11365| 129153754| -2. 32| 5. 38| 26351. 63| Israel| 19800| 79. 02| 6935| 48100004| 8. 89| 79. 05| 61664. 52| Italy| 26700| 79. 04| 13835| 191418754| 8. 91| 79. 41| 123290. 86| Jamaica| 3900| 75. 85| -8965| 80363754| 5. 72| 32. 73| -51288. 2| Japan| 28200| 80. 93| 15335| 235 175004| 10. 80| 116. 67| 165641. 67| Jordan| 4300| 77. 88| -8565| 73352088| 7. 75| 60. 08| -66386. 23| South Africa| 10700| 46. 56| -2165| 4685421| -23. 57| 555. 49| 51016. 52| Turkey| 6700| 71. 08| -6165| 38002088| 0. 95| 0. 90| -5864. 06| United Kingdom| 27700| 78. 16| 14835| 220089588| 8. 03| 64. 50| 119146. 94| United States| 37800| 77. 14| 24935| 621775004| 7. 01| 49. 16| 174828. 44| Table 5: Statistical analysis of the data collected in Table 1 From the last column we can compute the covariance parameter of the GDP and Life Expectancy: Sxy =148 i=148(xi-x)(yi-y)= 73011. 6 Section 3: Linear regression We start our investigation by studying the line best fit of the data in Table 1. This will allow us to see whether there is a relation of linear dependence between GDP and Life Expectancy. The regression line for the variables x and y is given by the following formula: y-y  ? =SxySx2(x-x ) By using the values found above we get: y= 62. 51 + 0. 5926*10-3 x The Pearson's correlati on coefficient is: r = 0. 6380 The following graph shows the data on Table 1 together with the line of best fit computed Figure 1: Linear regression. The value of the correlation coefficient r ~ 0. , is evidence of a moderate positive linear correlation between the variables x and y. On the other hand it is apparent from the graph above that the relation between the variables is not exactly linear. In the next section we will try to speculate on the reason for this non-linear relation and on what type of statistical relation can exist between GDP per capita and Life Expectancy. Section 4: Logarithmic regression As explained in reference [3], â€Å"the main reason for this non-linear relationship [between GDP per capita and Life Expectancy] is because people consume both needs and wants.People consume needs in order to survive. Once a person’s needs are satisfied, they could then spend the rest of their money on non-necessities. If everyone’s needs are satisfied, then any increase in GDP per capita would barely affect Life Expectancy. â€Å" There are various other reasons that one can think of, to explain the non-linear relationship between GDP per capita and Life Expectancy. For example the GDP per capita is the average wealth, while one should consider also how the global wealth is distributed among the population of a given country.With this in mind, to have a more complete picture of the statistical relation between economy of a country and Life Expectancy, one should take into considerations also other economic parameters, such as the Inequality Index, that describe the distribution of wealth among the population. Moreover, the wealth of the population is not the only factor effecting Life Expectancy: one should also take into account, for example, the governmental policies of a nation towards health and poverty. For example Cuba, a country with a very low GDP per capita ($ 2900), has a relatively high Life Expectancy (76. 8 years), mostly due to the fact that the government provides basic needs and health assistance to the population. Some of these aspects will be discussed in the next section. Let’s try to guess what could be a reasonable relation between the variables x (GDP per capita) and y (Life Expectancy). According to the above observations we can consider the total GDP formed by two values: x= xn + xw, where xn denotes the part of wealth spent on necessities, and xw denotes the part spent on wants.It is reasonable to make the following assumptions: 1. The Life Expectancy depends linearly on the part of wealth spent on necessities: y=axn + b, (1) 2. The fraction xn/x of wealth spent on necessities, is close to 1 when x is close to 0 (if one has a little amount of money he/she will spend most of it on necessities), and is close to 0 when x is very large (if one has a very large money he/she will spend only a little fraction of on necessities). 3.We make the following choice for the function xn= f(x) sa tisfying the above requirements: xn= log (cx + 1)/c, (2) where c is some positive parameter. This function is chosen mainly for two reasons. On one hand it satisfies the requirements that are describe in 2, indeed the corresponding graph of xn/x = f(x) = log (cx + 1)/cx: Figure 2: Graph of the function y= log (cx + 1)/cx, for C=0. 5 (blue), 1 (black) and 10 (red). The blue, black and red lines correspond respectively to the choice of parameter c= 0. 5, 1 and 10.As it appears from the graph in all cases we have f(0)= 1 and f(x) is small for large values of x. On the other hand the function chosen allows us to use the statistical tools at our disposal in the excel software to derive some interesting conclusion about the statistical relation between x and y. This is what we are going to do next. First we want to find the relation between x and y under the above assumptions. Putting together equations (1) and (2) we get: y= aclncx+1+b, (3) which shows that there is a logarithmic depende nce between x and y.Equation (3) can be rewritten in the following equivalent form: if we denote A=a/c, B= b+(a/c)ln(c), C=1/c, y=Aln(x+C)+B . (4) We can now study the curve of type (4) which best fits the data in Table 1, using the statistical tools of excel spreadsheet. Unfortunately excel allows us to plot only a curve of type y= Aln(x) + B (i. e. equation of type four where C is equal to 0). For this choice of C, we get the following logarithmic curve of best fit together with the corresponding value of correlation coefficient r2. Figure 3: Logarithmic regression.To find the analogous curve of best fit for a given value of C (positive, arbitrarily chosen) we can simply add C to all the x values and redo the same plot as for C= 0 with the new independent variable x1= x + C. We omit showing the graphs containing the curve of best fit for all the possible values of C and we simply report, in the following table, the correlation coefficient r for some appropriately chosen values of C. C| r| 0. 00| 0. 77029| 0. 01| 0. 77029| 0. 1| 0. 77028| 1| 0. 77025| 10| 0. 76991| 100| 0. 76666| Table 8: correlation coefficient r2 for the curve of best fit y= Aln(x+C) +B, for some values of C. The above data indicate that the optimal choice of C is between 0. 00 and 0. 01, since in this case r is the closest to 1. Comparing the results got with the linear regression (r ~ 0,6) and the logarithmic regression (r ~ 0,8) we can conclude that the latter appears to be a better model to describe the relation between GDP per capita and Life Expectancy, since the value of the correlation coefficient is significantly bigger. From Figure 3 one the data is very far from the curve of best fit and so we may decide to discuss it separately and do the regression without it.This data is corresponds to South Africa with a GDP per capita of 10700 and a Life Expectancy at birth of 46. 56 (much lower than any other country with a comparable GDP). It is reasonable to think that this anomaly is due to the peculiar history of South Africa which, after the end of apartheid, had to face an uncontrolled violence. It is therefore difficult to fit this country in a statistical model and we can decide to remove it from our data. Doing so, we get the following new plot. Figure 4: Logarithmic regression for the data in Table 1 excluding South Africa. The new value of correlation coefficient r~ 0. 3 indicates that, excluding the anomalous data of South Africa, there is a strong positive logarithmic correlation between GDP per capita and Life Expectancy at birth. Section 5: Chi square test (? 2? test) We conclude our investigation by making a chi square test. This will allow us to confirm the existence of a relation between the variables x and y. For this purpose we formulate the following null and alternative hypotheses. H0: GDP and Life Expectancy are not correlated. H1: GDP and Life Expectancy are correlated * Observed frequency: The observed frequencies are obtained directly from Ta ble 2: | Below y? | Above y? | Total|Below x| 14| 1| 15| Above x| 16| 17| 33| Total| 30| 18| 48| Table 6: Observed frequencies for the chi square test * Expected frequency: The expected frequencies are obtained by the formula: fe = (column total (row total) / total sum | Below y? | Above y? | Total| Below x| 9. 375| 5. 625| 15| Above x| 20. 625| 12. 375| 33| Total| 30| 18| 48| Table 7: Expected frequencies for the chi square test. We can now calculate the chi square variable: ?2? = ( f0-fe)2/fe = 8. 85 In order to decide whether we accept or not the alternative hypothesis H1, we need to find the number of degrees of freedom (df) and to fix a level of confidence .The number of degrees of freedom is: df= (number of rows – 1) (number of columns –1) = 1 The corresponding critical values of chi square, depending on the choice of level of confidence , are given in the following table (see reference [4]) df| 00. 10| 00. 05| 0. 025| 00. 01| 0. 005| 1| 2. 706| 3. 841| 5. 024| 6 . 635| 7. 879| Table 7: Critical values of chi square with one degree of freedom. Since the value of chi square is greater than any of the above critical values, we conclude that even with a level of confidence = 0. 005 we can accept the alternative hypothesis H1: GDP and Life Expectancy are related.The above test shows that there is some relation between the two variables x (GDP per capita) and y (Life Expectancy at birth). Our goal is to further investigate this relation. Section 6: Conclusions Interpretation of results Our study of the statistical relation between GDP per capita and Life Expectancy brings us to the following conclusions. As the chi square test shows there is definitely some statistical relation between the two variables (with a confidence level = 0. 005). The study of linear regression shows that there is a moderate positive linear correlation between the two variables, with a correlation coefficient r~ 0. . This linear model can be greatly improved replacing the linear dependence with a different type of relation. In particular we considered a logarithmic relation between the variable x (GDP) and y (Life Expectancy). With this new relation we get a correlation coefficient r~ 0. 7. In fact, if we remove the data related to the anomalous country of South Africa (which should be discussed separately and does not fit well in our statistical analysis), we get an even higher correlation coefficient r~ 0. . This is evidence of a strong positive logarithmic dependence between x and y. Validity and Areas of improvement Of course one possible improvement of this project would be to consider a much more extended collection data on which to do the statistical analysis. For example one could consider a large list countries, data related to different years (other than 2003), and one could even think of studying data referring to local regions within a single country.All this can be found in literature but we decided to restrict to the data presented in this project because we considered it enough as an application of the mathematical and statistical tools used in the project. A second, probably more interesting, possible improvement of the project would be to consider other economic factors that can affect the Life Expectancy at birth of a country. Indeed the GDP per capita is just a measure of the average wealth of a country and it does not take in account the distribution of the wealth.There are however several economic indices that measure the dispersion of wealth in the population and could be considered, together with the GDP per capita, as a factor influencing Life Expectancy. For example, it would be interesting to study a linear regression model in which the dependent variable y is the Life Expectancy and with two (or more) independent variables xi, one of which should be the GDP per capita and another could be for example the Gini Inequality Index reference (measuring the dispersion of wealth in a country).This would have been very interesting but, perhaps, it would have been out of context in a project studying GDP per capita and Life Expectancy. Probably the most important direction of improvement of the present project is related to the somewhat arbitrary choice of the logarithmic model used to describe the relation between GDP and Life Expectancy. Our choice of the function y= Aln(x+C) +B, was mainly dictated by the statistic package at our disposal in the excel software used in this project.Nevertheless we could have considered different, and probably more appropriate, choices of functional relations between the variables x and y. For example we could have considered a mixed linear and hyperbolic regression model of type y= A + Bx + C/(x+D), as it is sometimes considered in literature (see reference [4]). Bibliography: 1. Gapminder World. Web. 4 Jan. 2012. ;lt;http://www. gapminder. org;gt;. 2. â€Å"GDP – per Capita (PPP) vs. Infant Mortality Rate. Index Mundi – Country Facts. W eb. 4Jan. 2012. <http://www. indexmundi. com/g/correlation. aspx? v1=67>. 3. â€Å"Life Expectancy at Birth versus GDP per Capita (PPP). † Statistical Consultants Ltd. Web. 4 Jan. 2012. <http://www. statisticalconsultants. co. nz/ weeklyfeatures/WF6. html>. 4. â€Å"Table: Chi-Square Probabilities. † Faculty & Staff Webpages. Web. 4 Jan. 2012. <http://people. richland. edu/james/lecture/m170/tbl-chi. html>.

Free Essays on 180 Poems

back in the ladies face in a way. She tells him to give her orders and he’s okay then tell me to lift my right arm. Pretty much twisting what she says, but stilling doing what she says. It also portrays the idea of rather being a follower than being a leader. Showing it is easier to do what someone else tells you to than to think up your own ideas and telling them what to do. In the poem the lady was probably also testing his patience, by not saying anything and that’s why when he asks "what next" that’s why she says now its your turn to give the orders, showing him just to wait. In the end though the poem is simply about giving and taking directions. My deciphering of this poem shows you can look deep and see the many meaning or you can just look at the surface and just see the main point. It also shows that poems can be interpreted differently depending on the reader. Peter Cherches could have had totally different ideas about this poem. I like this poem because of it’s sense of humor and bit of saucy sarcasm. Many of the poems that I had looked at on this website had no depth, no hidden meaning, not saying this was an extremely deep poem. It was just more interesting than most of them. Another poem I also liked was "The Panic Bird" by Robert Phillips. It included symbolism and feelings. The feeling were of fear and panic which the author hates, yet they always come back. The bird symbolizes the fear, which he hates and he describes it in depth throug... Free Essays on 180 Poems Free Essays on 180 Poems Poems are a way to express people’s ideas and reflect on their feeling. They have many different depths and themes. Poetry can reveal a lot about the person writing it. It can show their sensitivity, sense of humor, what they have gone or their thoughts on life. The poem I choose from poetry 180 was "Lift Your Right Arm" by Peter Cherches. This poem uses the idea of giving and taking orders, but it turns it into something funny. It is funny because he is throwing the words back in the ladies face in a way. She tells him to give her orders and he’s okay then tell me to lift my right arm. Pretty much twisting what she says, but stilling doing what she says. It also portrays the idea of rather being a follower than being a leader. Showing it is easier to do what someone else tells you to than to think up your own ideas and telling them what to do. In the poem the lady was probably also testing his patience, by not saying anything and that’s why when he asks "what next" that’s why she says now its your turn to give the orders, showing him just to wait. In the end though the poem is simply about giving and taking directions. My deciphering of this poem shows you can look deep and see the many meaning or you can just look at the surface and just see the main point. It also shows that poems can be interpreted differently depending on the reader. Peter Cherches could have had totally different ideas about this poem. I like this poem because of it’s sense of humor and bit of saucy sarcasm. Many of the poems that I had looked at on this website had no depth, no hidden meaning, not saying this was an extremely deep poem. It was just more interesting than most of them. Another poem I also liked was "The Panic Bird" by Robert Phillips. It included symbolism and feelings. The feeling were of fear and panic which the author hates, yet they always come back. The bird symbolizes the fear, which he hates and he describes it in depth throug...

Legal Canadian Smoking Age by Province and Territory

Legal Canadian Smoking Age by Province and Territory The legal smoking age in Canada is the age at which a person is allowed to buy tobacco products, including cigarettes. The legal smoking age in Canada is set by each province and territory in Canada. Buying tobacco is split more or less evenly between age 18 and age 19 across Canadas provinces and territories: Legal Smoking Age in the Provinces and Territories of Canada   Alberta - 18British Columbia - 19Manitoba - 18New Brunswick - 19Newfoundland and Labrador - 19Northwest Territories - 18Nova Scotia - 19Nunavut - 18Ontario - 19Prince Edward Island - 19Quebec - 18Saskatchewan - 18Yukon Territory - 18 Selling tobacco is tightly regulated in most areas. In Ontario, for instance, the seller, whose age is not regulated, must request identification from any person who appears to be younger than 25 years old, and the seller must determine that the prospective buyer is at least 19 years old before selling tobacco products to that person. Smoking Is Banned in Indoor Public Spaces As of 2010, all territories and provinces and the federal government have enacted relatively consistent legislation banning public smoking in their jurisdictions. The legislation bans smoking in indoor public spaces and workplaces such as restaurants, bars, and casinos. The federal governments ban applies to federal workplaces and to federally regulated businesses such as airports. There is growing support for raising the minimum legal smoking age to 21  across the country to make access to tobacco more difficult and tamp down tobacco-related illness and deaths.  About 37,000 people die in Canada every year from a smoking-related illness. The Movement to Raise Legal Smoking Age to 21 The federal government suggested in early 2017 moving the legal smoking age to 21. The  idea of raising the minimum smoking age was put forward in a Health Canada paper considering ways to reach a 5 percent national smoking rate by 2035. In 2017, it stood at 13 percent. The federal government is reportedly not ruling out the possibility of raising the minimum smoking age to 21. The intent would be to try and reduce the number of young people picking up the habit. Federal Health Minister Jane Philpott said,  It’s time to push the envelope. What are those next steps? We’ve put out some bold ideas, things like raising the age of access. Things like putting restrictions in terms of multiperson dwellings. We want to hear what Canadians think about those [ideas].† Cancer Society Supports Raising the Minimum Age The  Canadian Cancer Society  says it  supports the idea of setting a federal smoking age of 21. Rob Cunningham, a senior policy analyst with the society, says he believes raising the smoking age is an inevitability and cites a 2015 study by the US National  Institute of Medicine, which suggests that raising the legal smoking age to 21 could drop the smoking rate by roughly 12 percent and eventually reduce smoking-related deaths by 10 percent. Study Shows Drop in Smokers In the first quarter of 2017, the national group Physicians for a Smoke-Free Canada (PSC) released its health survey on 2000–2014 tobacco use in Canada.  During this period, there was an overall 1.1 million drop in the number of Canadian  smokers, while  the number of smokers ages 15 to 19 also dropped but remained substantial. The percentage of Canadians who smoked fell by one-quarter, from 26% of Canadians aged 12 or older to 19%.  Over the  2000–2014 study period, the  majority of people ages 20 to 29 who have ever smoked reported smoking their first cigarette between the age of 15 and 19, while the percentage of those who reported their first cigarette over the age of 20 increased slightly from 7 percent to 12 percent.

Email and Postal Rules Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Email and Postal Rules - Essay Example According to the study over the last couple of decades, beginning from the 1990s, there is a sharp decline of letter writing in accordance to the report of UK postal service. Of course, official letters are still in use and the postal department delivers them throughout the world. However, in the context of casual letter writing, there is a diminishing trend and the fundamental cause of this trend is globalization and the impact of internet communication along with other telecommunication agents. Acceptance and offer analysis is an age-old approach of contract law, which is used in order to determine whether there is an agreement between two individuals or parties. A number of things can be offered, like a fax, newspaper, letter, email and also conduct as long as it conveys the idea of the offered given in the contract. An invitation to treat is not considered as an offer as it only indicates that a person is willing to discuss a contract. If the person the offer has been made to rejects it, the offer is destroyed, as it cannot be received in the future. Like in the case of Hyde v. Wrench, in reply to an offer for selling an estate at a definite price, the plaintiff responded with a lower price. Thus, the offer was then refused and when the plaintiff wanted to buy the estate at the former price, they could not as no contract was signed with the initial offer and hence it did not exist. The late 1990s and 2000s can be referred to as a new era of sunshine gradually but progressively scattering its rays all over the world, incorporating the nations, bringing

Introduction Development Economies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Introduction Development Economies - Essay Example Inequality in Human Development Index (HDI) is masked in the human development distribution across the population at the country level. The HDI value of Senegal is 0.470. However, when discounted for inequality, the value reduces to 0.315. This equals a loss of 33% as a result of inequality in distribution of indices of dimension. Uganda and Senegal indicate loses as a result of inequality of 34.2% and 33.9% respectively. The average loss resulting from inequality for Sub-Sahara Africa is 35% and 35% for low HDI countries. ii) Over the last two decades, the GII of Senegal has resulted to a loss in human development following the inequality between achievements made by males and females in the three dimensions of GII. Question 2 i) Poverty level in Senegal is high. Over the past 25 years, the GDP per capita has been declining. Citizens of Senegal spent lots of their money on necessities of life, such as food. The UNDP, an organization which classifies countries according to their scor e in the HDI, estimated that 52% of Senegalese household consumption is food unlike in the U.S, where food averages to 8% of household consumption. ... Due to poor land management, Senegal has experienced and degradation, which has been worsening in the recent years. This has, in turn, increased poverty levels in the country. Education, drinking water, medicine, transport and energy are also major problems in some parts of Senegal. Diseases like malaria, AIDS and cholera are widespread in Senegal thus increasing the cost used on medicine. This raises poverty levels of the country. With regard to human resources, Senegal has a high rate of unemployment and under-employment. The ratio of the employed and the unemployed people is one to five. This suggests that there is high dependency rate, which is one of the issues that impact pressure on working individuals whose chances of falling into monetary poverty becomes high. Highest percentage of unemployment is experienced in rural areas which make the youths and active women to migrate to towns. Since illiteracy levels are high in rural areas, people largely rely on Agriculture as their main economic activity which is, unfortunately, prone to natural hazards like drought. Highest rates of unemployment are found among young graduates. Compared to Senegal, poverty levels in Cote d’Ivoire and Uganda are higher. ii) In the recent 20 years, there has been poverty evolution in Senegal whereby the country has been involved in war against poverty. Over the years, the social and economic policies were prepared to put lots of strain in the labor market, education and health structures, urbanization and low and erratic economic growth. The state has been ensuring that the microeconomic framework is stable by reducing external imbalance and containing public deficit with the aim of raising the living standards of the citizens. There has been trade

A Reaction and Opinion on the TIVO Service Essay

A Reaction and Opinion on the TIVO Service - Essay Example This has happened in films for several decades: for example, the Aston-Martin cars that James Bond always drives or the prominently placed soft drinks such as Coke in many teenage films. This is starting to occur in TV programs as well. TIVO has an edge over other companies because it was the first one to offer such service, but many cable companies are now competing with them. For example, most cable companies, such as Comcast, now offer Digital Video Recorders that can be rented on a monthly basis and perform the same function as TIVO. These services are also cheaper than TIVO. Professional athletes are in the public spotlight for one simple reason. They are incredibly good at playing certain sports that many people want to watch and so they are paid a lot of money. These athletes are paid huge sums of money because of the amount advertisers will pay TV stations for the sports and the amount that fans will pay to attend the events. But unfortunately, professional athletes are also expected, for reasons that are not entirely clear, to be "role-models" for fans in general and the young in particular. For better or worse, people look up to athletes, and so parents/society expect them to act in a certain way.

Ethical Theories In Solving Crime Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Ethical Theories In Solving Crime - Essay Example As you can see my strategy champions’ diplomacy and deliberate on what you should do. I will use my skills and interventions to sponsor a superior counseling strategy. Part of the plan will be to apply normative moral theories that I have with time learned from class to ensure that I properly solves the situation. To understand the scenes of crime in each case, especially the woman involved in crime, I will use consequentialism theory to understand what prompts the thoughts of crime. That is, what is the ultimate basis for any judgment about the rightness and the wrongness of the conduct I will further invite Jeremy Bentham Bentham and Burns believe on utilitarianism, which argues that people driven by their fears, hence they take precedence of their fears. Supportively, Eggleston argues that an action an action is moral when it produces the greatest amount of happiness. However, a problem will arise when the greatest happiness is achieved at the expense of a few. For that rea son, utilitarianism would seem to endorse crime when it produces the greatest total amount of happiness for the greatest number of people.

The Role of Nurses in the Prevention, Care, and Management of Suicide Essay

The Role of Nurses in the Prevention, Care, and Management of Suicide - Essay Example The first section of the paper identifies the nature and symptoms of suicide. Nurses should be aware of the nature, signs and symptoms of suicide and the factors contributing to suicide risk. Determining who are at risk should be done immediately to prevent suicide, thus the second part of this paper determines the preventive measures that must be done to control the situation. The third part discusses the proper care for patients at risk of suicide. Although care for patients with suicide tendency is the main responsibility of psychologists and psychiatrists, nurses contribute to the wellness of the patients and the continuity of the recovery program. The fifth part suggests follow up actions that nurses can perform to ensure complete recovery of patients with suicide tendency. The sixth part gives the conclusion and summarises all the important points in the prevention, care and management of suicide cases in the hospital setting. The role of the nurse in the prevention, care, and management of suicide among hospital patients is very significant. The nurses are the ones who have the most direct and frequent contact with the patients, thus they may affect the mood and emotional condition of patients with suicide tendency. The case of suicidal patients is very sensitive, thus nurses should be equipped with the relevant knowledge and skills to identify and care for patients attempting to commit suicide.... e case of suicidal patients is very sensitive, thus nurses should be equipped with the relevant knowledge and skills to identify and care for patients attempting to commit suicide. The number of suicide cases in the UK has decreased in the past years (Joint Commission Resources 2007). Nevertheless, this does not make suicide less of a problem. The World Health Organisation declared suicide as a major global health concern, accounting for approximately one million cases worldwide annually (Voice of America 2009). Currently, it is one of the three leading causes of death for young people under 25. This rate makes suicide a serious problem in the field of health care. To address this issue, patients with suicide tendency should be identified right away for counselling and other relevant interventions. In the hospital level, nurses can help to address the problem by assessing and reporting the behaviour of patients. Therefore, it is necessary for nurses to know the signs of suicide to ef fectively act and elicit efforts from the concerned people to initiate prevention of suicide attempts and manage proper care of the patient. Currently, only a few nursing studies have addressed suicide specifically (Fitzpatrick and Wallace 2005; Bryan and Rudd 2011). Study and assessment of suicide cases revealed poor patient assessment, limited communication, and knowledge deficit of professional staff about suicide. In this regard, it is imperative for every nurse or health worker in general to be aware of the behavioural signs that can manifest as part of suicide risk. Also, it is important to understand the nature of suicide ideation and the factors that could lead a person to commit suicide. Suicide Prevention Suicide ideation or tendency results usually from depression. When people

Toyota Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Toyota - Essay Example Thailand is chosen as the global manufacturing base and other manufacturing bases in Asian countries will supply engines and other components. The vehicles developed in global manufacturing base of Thailand have a potential for export in 80 nations and regions. This will also make input costs much lower than in developed countries and increase the profit margin in case of an economic slowdown. In case of Chinese markets, manufacturing and marketing needs to be strengthened for viable growth. Full product lineup in different segments like compact, luxury SUV and luxury sedan vehicles has to be established. The manufacturing capacity needs to be revamped in this emerging market which will in turn increase the brand value of Toyota. Introduction of lexus and reorganization of sales channel is necessary to sustain growth in Japanese market. Further preparations are necessary to accomodate future changes in market structure and customer values. The merger and acquisition scenario also brings two of the major players Ford and Toyota together. Toyota management can negotiate a deal as Ford, the third largest manufacturer of cars, is mired in one of the worst financial crises in its history and Toyota is in its strongest position since it was founded 70 years ago. Development of a wide range of technologies and products with focus on market creation is the ultimate strategy for expansion. Leading edge technologies like nanotechnology, material technology and biotechnology will be the driving force for the next generation cutting edge technology for developing green and clean environment friendly, safe and user friendly interface for vehicles. The ecology and the emotion of customers will be taken care of in this strategic development. The laws, regulations and government policies regarding environmental protection, vehicle emissions, vehicle fuel economy , vehicle safety, outcome of

Ethical Theories In Solving Crime Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Ethical Theories In Solving Crime - Essay Example As you can see my strategy champions’ diplomacy and deliberate on what you should do. I will use my skills and interventions to sponsor a superior counseling strategy. Part of the plan will be to apply normative moral theories that I have with time learned from class to ensure that I properly solves the situation. To understand the scenes of crime in each case, especially the woman involved in crime, I will use consequentialism theory to understand what prompts the thoughts of crime. That is, what is the ultimate basis for any judgment about the rightness and the wrongness of the conduct I will further invite Jeremy Bentham Bentham and Burns believe on utilitarianism, which argues that people driven by their fears, hence they take precedence of their fears. Supportively, Eggleston argues that an action an action is moral when it produces the greatest amount of happiness. However, a problem will arise when the greatest happiness is achieved at the expense of a few. For that rea son, utilitarianism would seem to endorse crime when it produces the greatest total amount of happiness for the greatest number of people.

Toyota Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Toyota - Essay Example Thailand is chosen as the global manufacturing base and other manufacturing bases in Asian countries will supply engines and other components. The vehicles developed in global manufacturing base of Thailand have a potential for export in 80 nations and regions. This will also make input costs much lower than in developed countries and increase the profit margin in case of an economic slowdown. In case of Chinese markets, manufacturing and marketing needs to be strengthened for viable growth. Full product lineup in different segments like compact, luxury SUV and luxury sedan vehicles has to be established. The manufacturing capacity needs to be revamped in this emerging market which will in turn increase the brand value of Toyota. Introduction of lexus and reorganization of sales channel is necessary to sustain growth in Japanese market. Further preparations are necessary to accomodate future changes in market structure and customer values. The merger and acquisition scenario also brings two of the major players Ford and Toyota together. Toyota management can negotiate a deal as Ford, the third largest manufacturer of cars, is mired in one of the worst financial crises in its history and Toyota is in its strongest position since it was founded 70 years ago. Development of a wide range of technologies and products with focus on market creation is the ultimate strategy for expansion. Leading edge technologies like nanotechnology, material technology and biotechnology will be the driving force for the next generation cutting edge technology for developing green and clean environment friendly, safe and user friendly interface for vehicles. The ecology and the emotion of customers will be taken care of in this strategic development. The laws, regulations and government policies regarding environmental protection, vehicle emissions, vehicle fuel economy , vehicle safety, outcome of

The Foremost Negotiator in Africa Essay Example for Free

The Foremost Negotiator in Africa Essay Lade Adeyemi is a man known to some and referred to be many, as Africas foremost Negotiation trainer, coach and author. The commonwealth trained lawyer and Negotiation specialist is the founder of Africas first Business Negotiation School, the Transatlantic Negotiation School of Business which was incorporated in California USA and has training centres in West, East and Southern Africa. The Negopreneur ( has he called fondly by some of his products), started his career as a legal officer and solicitor ,with work experiences from organisations in Singapore, United States, Australia, Nigeria and Mauritius, His skill acquisition and expertise in the area of Business Negotiation has been severally harnessed not only in his innate abilites, but also his intercultural prowess in the usage of Negotiation techniques for and on behalf of the various National and International Organisations as well as professionals he has be privileged to serve over the years. The Harvard University trained Negotiation professional has tutored and taught over 100,000 professionals from 6 continents , comprising of Magistrates ,Lawyers, Entrepreneurs, Governments, NGOs, CEOs, Insurers, HR executives, Managers, Political leaders,Engineers, Fellows of the Sloan School of Management at the MIT in Cambridge USA, African delegates of the Harvard Universitys Programs on Negotiation, as well as other students from the following Universities; Idaho State University USA, Brigham Young University Rexburg USA, Fresno Community College California, Legion University Accra, Ghana, University of Lagos Lagos, Nigeria, University of Cape Town Cape Town, South Africa, Members of the Rotract Club, Africa. The Certified Negotiation Expert (CNE), is also a member of various organizations such as the African Round Table, Academy of International Business, International Bar Association, Investment Management Consultants Association, International Association of Business Communications, Commonwealth Association of Lawyers, Rotary International etc. The California Advocate Newspaper front page personality has also been involved in capacity building of youths and entrepreneurs and has a great passion for youth development and growth. Lade Adeyemi has also amongst a few written various articles some of which include, Looking Next Door: Indentifying Undermining Characteristics of Legal and Business Negotiation Ethics from an Afro-Asian Stand Point:Article written and published in an Entrepreneurial Magazine in Perth, Australia. Amongst some of the books he has authored are, Think Wealth, Think Africa, 123Business Negotiation Techniques for Managers as the best selling Negotiating as a Pro. Others to be published in 2013 include; Intercultural Negotiations: an international Business guide for Win-Win outcomes, Negotiating the Non-Negotiables: Dealing with the Principalities in Negotiations,100 Key Negotiation and Persuasion Techniques for Effective Communication: co- authored with Prof Andra Hansen, Negotiation and Church Leadership: co- authored with Dr J. Blackwood and the long awaited Legal Professionals Negotiations: 100 Negotiation techniques for lawyers and judicial officers. On the employment side (from the recent), he is currently the convener of Africas first Business Negotiation School, Founder / President, Transatlantic Negotiation School of Business USA, Founder Africas first Wax and digital museum; Our Heritage House of Wax and digital Imagery Company, Group Chairman, Nubian Group, Africa, currently serves as the Subject Matter Expert on Negotiation, Lagos State Government, was the Special / Legal Assistant to the E.C Lagos State Public Works Corporation, served as Legal Adviser / Company Secretary, Taxi-AD Germany, Managing / Life Partner Funmi Adeyemi Co, was the first African to be employed as the International Business Executive Asian Centre for Professional Excellence- Singapore. Before setting off tonSingapore, he practiced as a Lawyer in Chamber with IDOWU Queens Chambers, Gadzama Attoneys at Law Abuja as well as Lateef Adegbite Co. A man of numerous indigenous and international awards amongst which are, the Paul Harris Fellowship award Rotary International, Honorary Member, Worldwide Whos Who, USA , Role Model Award recipient , Young Entrepreneurs’ Network of Africa, Role Model award recipient , faculty of Arts and Communication, University of Lagos, Award of Recognition in Negotiation and Leadership, Faculty of Communications, Fresno Community College Carlifornia  USA as well as the first African to be presented with the prestigious African Leadership Award in Negotiation by the African Leadership Magazine, Cairo, to mention but a few.

Relevant Concept Of Celebrity Endorsements Marketing Essay

Relevant Concept Of Celebrity Endorsements Marketing Essay Introduction In the introduction this research paper will be providing an insight about the research area. It would begin by briefly discussing the background and relevant concept of celebrity endorsements and how it affects the consumer pre-purchasing behavior. 1.1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Background Advertisement came into existence in early 18th Century. Since then the concept started playing an active role in the development of the society in the early 1930s.Most of the celebrity back then used their status in society to promote product, service or charity. These celebrities performed stage shows; modeling, sports activities and most of them were from movie industry (Kambitsis, Harahousouy, Theodorakis and Chatzibeis, 2002). In the early 19th century, worlds first celebrity endorser Lillie Langtry (British actress) appeared in the advertisement for pear soap. It marked the beginning of the brand representation by endorsers. These endorsers according to the Tellis (1998) can be divided into three major groups experts, lay endorsers and celebrities. Here experts are those people who know about the product and they have limited knowledge about the product which they have assembled during study, training or experiences. Such an instance can be shown in advertisement where dentist for toothpaste advert or nutritionists for healthy food items as both of them are able to provide an expert opinion about the product. Secondly lay endorsers are people who may be real or fictional, which resembles to the target groups and can be quite effective to provide message. Thirdly comes celebrity endorser who can be defined as the people who enjoys public recognition and who uses this on the behalf of a consumer good by appealing with it in an advertisement (McCracken, 1989, p.310). Celebrity endorsements are used for advertisement just because they can create an appeal and can increase its attractiveness for the viewers and consumers. For example Michael Jordan acted in advertisement for Nike; David Beckham for Gillette and newly made football cup advert of coca cola where Roger Millas celebrates wonderful world of football goals. According to Ohanian (1999) both theory and practice proves that the use of super stars in advertisements generates a lot of publicity as well as draws the attention of public. Most of the companies try to utilise the already made image of the celebrities to attract more customer base and increase their loyalty. As in this highly competitive business environment brand loyalty has become the utmost important for success. Companies use celebrities endorsement in the advertisements so that they are able to associate with celebrity and are able to cash there image for a long period of time. It is said that, If the consumers are able to see the link between the celebrity and the product then the endorsements can be highly effective (Hsu and McDonald, 2002). It is believed that attractive endorsers can be highly affective while promoting products and can be used to enhance consumers attractiveness. Attractive people have greater influences on the consumers compared to unattractive people (Till and Busler, 1998). Till (1998) states companies used celebrity endorsers either sporadically or opportunistically at the whim of the client or the agency. Paying back for the investments in the celebrity endorsement usually comes from using the celebrity regularly over time. The reputation strengthens the associative link for those consumers who were already aware of the celebrity endorsement. It also increases the pole of consumers who begins to make themselves aware of the link between the brand and the celebrity. Some marketers change celebrity endorsers very frequently which weakens the benefit expected to be derived from the endorser. Such as Nikes consistent use of Michael Jordon has encouraged customers to think about Nike when thinking about Jordon and vice versa these have shown that Nike and Jordon have become a part of each others association similarly association of the Nike and Tiger woods have made same impact as whenever customers think of golf products they think of the Tiger woods and its endorsed Nike product. McCracken (1989) proposed the hypothesis that endorsers are more effective when there is a fit between the endorser and the endorsed product. Byrne et al (2003, p.289) states celebrity can help the brand to rebuilt and even create a new identity with new dimensions. Celebrity endorsement boosts brands attractiveness among the consumers and saves valuable time in terms of creating the credibility. When consumers see a credible celebrity endorsing a product they think the company has to be good and reputed. The major job for the company is to choose the right kind of the celebrity for the endorsement and its the job of the advertisers within the company to match the companys image or product with the personality of the celebrity and characteristics of the target market to establish effective message and mass expectance. According to the Shimp (2003) two general attributes which are important when determining the effectiveness of the endorsers as well as the communications effectiveness are credibility and attractiveness. The first attribute concerns endorsers quality of being believable or trustworthy and the achievements and skills of the celebrity which could correlate with the brand image. The latter attribute refers to the celebrities ability to appeal, attract and engage large consumer base on the basis of their attractiveness. A good example of these would be golf star Tiger Woods whose scandalous image resulted in his ruining his credibility among the consumers which lead to his sponsors (ATT, Gillette, Tag Heuer and Accenture) dropping his advertisements and Anna Kournikova who although has never won any pro-level tournament but was still used by Swiss watch maker Omega to endorse their products because of her international reputation and appealing looks. Purpose and research questions Many of the previous studies on the celebrity endorsement have been focused on how celebrity endorsements influence consumer behavior. But there has been less consideration on the empirical   research on celebrity endorsement specifically on sport celebrity endorsements and in what manner do they use celebrity and how do they addresses the future returns on the investments in celebrities. The lack of proper research in this area inspires the present dissertation. So the main aim of this research would be to gain deeper understanding of the celebrity endorsement and how it influences the consumers behavior specifically in sports industry. To be able to achieve that following question were formulated: 1. Why does sports industry uses celebrity endorsements for promotional strategy? 2. How does celebrity endorsement affect the consumer behavior in sports industry? 3. How does company select the celebrity? 4. How effective are celebrity endorsement for sports industry? Demarcations This topic falls into the very broad area. Limits of both time and resources have led this research to focus on the very specific questions. Therefore the research paper will concentrate specifically on sports industry and will analyses the prominent companies in the field.   Furthermore there are several viewpoints which could be adapted in the research of the celebrity endorsement. There is consumers view point as they are affected by celebrity endorsement and then there is a companys point of view as they use celebrity endorsement as there promotional strategy. The research is done by keeping in mind that both points of views are highly important in understanding the consumer behavior as well as companys approach in promoting celebrity endorsement. Literature review This section of the research paper would be discussing what has already been done by other authors on the topic and their conclusion about the effect on consumer pre-purchasing decisions. Celebrity image is one of the major concerns for the endorser. Whichever company is endorsing celebrity the major issue they have to see is the compatibility between the celebrities and their brand. Advertising companies look for celebrities who compete and maintain an image (Kambitsis et al, 2002). Mostly companies are looking for the some basic properties such as likeability, expertise, trustworthiness and similarity thats what makes celebrity endorser to become a source of persuasive information and this creates a sense of certainty .Physical attractiveness of the endorser is also considerable and can be highly effective in producing an effective message. Acceptance of a message by a receiver could be influenced by celebrity endorsers as believable sources of information about a product or a firm (Amos et al, 2008). The use of celebrity endorsers to support products is explained by balance theory principles too. According to theory, successful companies establish an emotional rela tion between the observer and the endorser and a relation between endorser and brand too (Mowen, 2000). One of the important issue which arises here is whether there is a link between the consumers purchasing intention and celebrity endorsement. Many researchers have concluded that they have observed that many customers will pay a premium price for the product which have been endorsed by celebrities then product which have not been endorsed by celebrity. But the consumer should be able to see associations between the product and endorser as well as his/her intentions and purpose with the endorsers. The question that arises here is how does consumer associates itself with the celebrity endorser, to make a connection and association. It can be simply identified as most of the   companies choose an endorser who uses the product and where the use of the product is reflected due to endorsers professional expertise (Daneshvary and schwer, 2002). An athlete endorser such as David Beckham endorses football shoe then association can be seen but if he endorses golf products or racing car then customer will not be able to identify association. Therefore companies have to be very careful while associating with brand and product with the endorser so that they are able to utilize endorsers capabilities according to their need. Celebrity endorsement based on attractiveness is common among everyday consumers which, most of the time, effect consumers positively. Michael Jordon is an example of an attractive endorser but his effectiveness is likely greater when endorsing to this athletic ability is more rather than the products which are not relate to athletic performances. Consumers often have the positive effect towards the product and the celebrity despite the fact it is well known that the endorser earned a lot when promoting a product. (Cronley et al., 1999) Its more effective to use celebrity endorsement constantly to increase the strength of the link between the celebrity and the endorsed brand. Its also more effective to use celebrity who is not associated with another product (Till, 1998). When a Celebrity endorses only one or two products it is significantly more trustworthy than a celebrity who endorses even more products (Tripp at al., 1994). Celebrity endorsement can have both positive and negative effect on companys image e.g., many celebrities who switch their endorsement to the rival brands increase the risk of negative impact and confusion among the consumers. Pros and cons of celebrity endorsement Erdrogen (1999) states that academic findings and company reports safely argues that celebrity endorsers are more effective than non celebrity endorsers   when it comes to generate all desirable outcomes (attitudes towards advertisings and endorsed brands, intension to purchase and actual sales). Companies mostly utilize celebrities whose public image and personality match with product and the target audience and who have not endorsed previously. It has been clearly understood by the advertisers that celebrity endorsement has the significant potential to increase the recognition of the product and the brand. The increasing competition and new product increase in the market have made companies and marketers to use attention creating media stars to assist product marketing (Erdogan, 1999). With recent technology such as remote controlled televisions, video controlled systems, internet and satellite television, the power over programmed advertisements have increased and has made advertising more challenging. These threats with increased products, competition and technology development can be eased by the use of the celebrity endorsements as celebrity presence in the advertisement tend to   make impact on consumers reaction toward the advertisement and can help making advertising stand out from the clutter(Erdogan, 1999). Advertisers use celebrity to develop the communication between the consumers and the brand by cutting down excessive noise in the communication process. Some of the most complicated problem with the global marketing is to enter foreign countries due to cultural roadblocks such as time space, language relationships, a powerful risk, masculinity, femininity. And to overcome this problem companies hire local celebrities as they are powerful means to enter the foreign market. It makes it easier for companies to make the local people understand and associate the product with them. But it can also bring too many risks as well mostly because celebrities loss of credibility due to the frequently changes in endorsements or if celebrity drops in popularity. Therefore celebrity endorsement is a creative as well as risky tool for the companies. The whole process of celebrity endorsements needs a proper strategic plan before risking their investment.   Celebrity Endorsers Effect on consumers attitude Marketers and advertisers are particularly interested in consumers attitudes towards advertisements and brands. They always need to be aware of how sensitive consumers are about the adverts and brands. And they should know how do consumers start liking the product and consider it. It very much depends upon the consumers attitude towards certain product or brand or celebrity endorser. An attitude shows whether we like something or not. Attitudes have three basic components: affective, cognitive and behavioral. Affective component is related to our liking or feelings about an object. Cognitive is referred to beliefs about an object and behavioral component regards actions we take about that object (Severin and Tankard, 2001). Attitude towards advertisement is defined as a learned tendency to respond in a consistently desirable or undesirable approach toward advertisement in general (Haghirian, 2004). Determinants of advertisement consist of attitude towards the advertiser, assessment o f the advertising execution itself, the mood evoked by advertising and the extent to which the advertising affect viewers encouragement. A successful advertisement in one country or region is not necessary it will be successful in other parts of the world as what makes advertisement impressive will change noticeably in cross-culturally. Many researchers have concluded that the use of the celebrity endorsement in advertising creates constructive impact on attitudes of the consumer towards products and brands with which they are associated. Agarwal and Malhotra (2005) have defined brand attitude as consumers general evaluative judgment of a brand based on brand beliefs. Such beliefs concern product-related attributes, like practical and experimental benefits. A successful endorser is able to enhance intentions and preferences towards brands directly or indirectly. An endorser who has major source factors of credibility (like expertise, trustworthiness and effectiveness) is able to imp ress purchase intentions of the consumer considerably (Liu et al, 2007). Information from a credible source can impress ideas, attitudes and behaviour through a process called internalization(Belch and Belch, 1993).   Internalization occurs when the receiver is motivated to have an issue. The receiver learns and accepts the idea of the credible spokesperson, since he supposes that information of this person represents an accurate position on the issue. Therefore, if such spokesperson who is known to be an expert endorses a product, consumers will more probably have a desirable idea about that advertisement and brand and they will consider it in their shopping list the next time they go shopping. Researchers have used the identification process of social influence in order to explain the effectiveness of celebrity endorsers (Basil, 1996). This theory suggests that if an individual identifies with another individual, then he is more likely to accept an attitude or behavior of that individual or a group. The internalization process of social influence occurs when an individual accepts influence because the induced behavior is congruent with his value system. An individual accepts the influence, since it provides a solution to a problem (Daneshvary and Schwer, 2000) A successful endorser strategy can enhance the level of consumers recalling towards product information, reinforces consumers recognition to endorsed brands, positively influences consumers attitude to low-involved products and even enhance consumers purchase intention and preference towards brands (Liu et al, 2007) Celebrity endorsement and its involvement sports industry Sports industry is becoming the vital revenue generator in world economy and it is mainly due to increase in the broadcast coverage of important sporting events like Olympics, World Cup football, UEFA Cup, Wimbledon, US Open, Australian Open, French Open, Formula 1 racing, World Athletic meet, NBA and Basketball championship .Due to increase coverage sports persons have started becoming celebrities as more and more people know them and consider them as their idols. Sports celebrities have become major spectacles of todays media culture. Sports celebrities have been looked upon as role models from the todays young generation.   Most of the sports companies (Adidas, Nike, Wilson, Puma, Slazenger, Stiga, Dunlop and Yonex ) which have international recognition wants to have an international sport celebrity which is recognised by the most of their consumers and has enough credibility and attractiveness to appeal to large customer base. Due to which, Celebrity endorsements in the sport i ndustry continues to grow both in number and value. Certain athletes are utilized by brands as endorsers of their products because of the celebrity status gained by these athletes as a result of their success in their chosen sports. Most models of celebrity endorser effectiveness proposed by previous researchers have been based upon two basic models: the Source Credibility Model (Hovland, Janis, Kelley, 1953; Hovland Weiss, 1951) and the Source Attractiveness Model (McGuire, 1968). The Source Credibility Model significances that the effectiveness of the message is largely determined by the expertise and trustworthiness of the celebrity endorser, which offers explanations for why certain athlete endorsers such as highly successful mens tennis professionals Andre Agassi, Rafael Nadal, and Roger Federer could easily represent any brand of tennis equipment. In a different vein, the Source Attractiveness Model significances that similarity, familiarity, and liking of celebrity endorsers primarily determine their effectiveness, which attempts to explain why some athletes such as Manning, Woods, and racecar driver Dale Earnhardt Jr. can endorse brands in many different product categories. A general measure of physica l attractiveness has often been used to assess celebrity endorser effectiveness, assuming what is beautiful is good (Dion, Berscheid, Walster, 1972). However, mixed findings suggest that caution should be exercised in basing endorsement decisions on this model alone, since consumers perceive physical attractiveness differently. The Product Matchup Hypothesis (Forkan, 1980; Kahle Homer, 1985; Kamins, 1989; Kamins, 1990) emphasizes the need for a matchup, also referred to as congruency or fit, between the celebrity and the product. For example, the fit between Woods and Nike Golf is undeniable. However, according to sport marketing consultant Marc Cagins, Woods has failed as an endorser for Buick because of a lack of fit: People always shook their head as to why he did the deal anyway with Buick. If hes going to do a deal with GM, you would have thought Cadillac more than Buick (Thomaselli, 2008, p. 28).Research based on attractiveness matchup and expertise matchup has supported the hypothesis that celebrity/product fit remains critical to endorsement success. Kamins (1990) tested the matchup hypothesis based on attractiveness and found that the physical attractiveness of a source only mattered when an attractive source was paired with an attractiveness-related product, resulting in increased perceived source credibility and attitude toward the advertisement. Current examples would include the female tennis professionals and sisters Serena and Venus Williams Avon cosmetics campaign and the European mens soccer star Thierry Henry/Woods/Federer Gillette campaign. In a study examining the impact of gender and physical attractiveness on responses to motorsports sponsorships (Roy, Stewart, Goss, 2003), attractiveness played a greater role for female drivers than for male drivers, with the more attractive female drivers perceived as possessing greater expertise with products such as shampoo, tanning products, and dietary products. However, Bower and Landreth (2001) found that highly attractive models were not more effective than normally attractive models for problem-solving, attractiveness-related products and attributed these results to the premise that consumers perceive highly attractive models to have never faced an attractiveness-related problem and therefore have little expertise using these products. To illustrate, this premise would suggest that the current campaign utilizing female tennis star Serena Williams for ProActiv acne medication would be unsuccessful. However, a moderately attractive model may be more likely to be perceived to have faced an attractiveness-related problem and overcome it using the advertised product, fully illustrating the premise that the expertise of the source is more important than the attractiveness of the source.   Chapter 3 Methodology Research can be defined as the search for information or as any organized investigation to establish facts. There are two main types of research methods: quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative study uses numerical data to test hypothesis under investigation, which is flexible and objective. Qualitative study uses softer approach to look at perceptions and insights of people based on few samples but in great depth (Silverman, 2006) In quantitative research usually numerical data is collected through surveys.  So that they are able to observe surveys and develop it into the meaningful results. In quantitative research it is important to collect large sample to develop fairly accurate results, small the sample less chances to develop proper results. Qualitative Research Qualitative research helps in developing more meaningful complex researches. It has been characterized into four main approaches: they are observation, record, interpretation and conclusion. In qualitative research data is collected by focus groups or by interviews and then the data is observed thoroughly. Once observed data is collected or recorded in meaningful way so that it is able to be interpreted into understandable form. Then finally conclusion is constructed in a suitable way. Observational study has been criticized to be unreliable and subjective depending on observers understanding of the data. This form of research would be more appropriate at preliminary phase of research (Silverman, 2006). Researcher also uses other approaches to investigates, it is mostly done by reading of various materials on the subject to develop and recognize relevant information. This method of research is less common among qualitative research. Most common method among qualitative research is interviews and focus groups (Silverman, 2006). In interviews, participants respond to questions asked by researcher to investigate their understanding of the subject and allows respondent to elaborate further with his or her ideas and feelings. Focus group method is a more costly approach to carry out than methods mentioned, but often criticized for limited sample size which may not be representative of the population under investigation (Silverman, 2006) Research Method The purpose of this research seeks to investigate the insight and opinions of the consumers over the celebrity endorse and does it really affect the consumer behaviour during the purchasing. To support my research and to understand the consumer behaviour in depth survey will be conducted where common people/consumer from all walks of life and will be collected and interpreted into meaningful results and conclusion.   To understand the subject in the perception of the company interviews will be conducted with the people, who have understanding of the market and know how companies generate profits from the celebrity endorsement and what they make of celebrity endorsements effect on consumers attitude.   Primary Data Collection Primary data is information gather first-hand to contribute to what could be explored further into the research and also to justify. It involves collecting data using basic methods such as interviews, questionnaires, observations and abstractions. But the key point here is that the data collected should be unique and should not resemble with already done researches. The primary data, which is generated by the above methods, may be qualitative in nature (usually in the form of words) or quantitative (usually in the form of numbers or counts of items assessed). In this research both questionnaires and interviews are utilise so that   consumer behaviour could be understood fully from   both prospective consumer as well from companies.in this research questionnaire will have both open and closed ended questions so that prà ©cised options and answers could be obtained and it will be more accurate in interpreting the data. For the interviews, semi-structured pattern with open-ended qu estions will be develop in order to understand   interviewees opinion and belief about a particular matter or situation and not restrict respondents answer to confined questions. Semi-structured questions are used in this research to encourage respondent to elaborate on points they feel appropriate and provide a blueprint for them to understand the progression of the interview (Ruane, 2005). Although qualitative and quantitative data collection can be time consuming, but it is reasoned that this form of research provides more accurate results. Participants for survey are the common people whom answered to a posting on Facebook, tweeter and collage email. Participants for the interview are the managers of the different companies which have international experiences and have some sort of knowledge and understanding of the celebrity endorsements. Researcher carefully examined each participants position and company background to ensure they correspond to requirements of this research. The final participants were chosen upon their qualification and availability. Interviews were conducted personally in their respected office due to their availability in the London U.K .The time assumed for interviews were 20 to 30 minute but Interviews were longer than predicted, as participants were remarkably eager to elaborate their answers with personal experiences; each interview lasted about 30minutes to 60 minutes. 3.5 Limitations An extra care is need in preparing the questions for the interview and questionnaire as if researcher conducts the structure too loosely then it may lead to undesirable information making the result and concision less effective. Therefore structure of interview and questionnaire should be in a way that appropriate information is collected. Even semi-structured interview and questionnaire are criticized for possibility of missing information if researcher follows the structure too closely. Availability of the time restricted the research by creating the boundaries such as limited respondents for surveys as well as restricted participation of interviewers. The research was concluded in a limited time frame.